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Training numerousness to numerosity in the dog ( Canis lupus familiaris )

Ano: 2025

Abstract Dogs show numerousness, which is the ability to identify the larger of two stimuli, most often the number of treats on a plate. However, dogs seem to use mechanisms other than counting to make this discrimination. This study builds on existing research by controlling for (a) olfaction, (b) the surface area of the stimuli, and (c) delivery of a single reinforcer contingent on correct choices in the trained task. Nine dogs were trained to select a dish with 5 dots/treats in a sealed container when presented with comparison stimuli of 1, 4, and 9 dots/treats. The dogs showed numerousness in discriminating between dishes with 1 versus 5 dots, with consistent performance of more than 80% correct. Two dogs could discriminate 4 versus 5 dots, and three dogs learned the 9‐ versus 5‐dot discrimination in which there is a conflict between selecting the larger option and selecting the 5 dots to gain reinforcement in the task. Knowledge of numerical competency, particularly training dogs to select the nonreinforced choice, can offer strategies to facilitate cognitive enrichment and learning in animals or offer enhancement of the capabilities of working dogs where the concept of number might be advantageous in providing additional skills.

Transfer of a novel discriminative function across functional stimulus class members in rats

Ano: 2025

Abstract This experiment explored a rodent model of functional class formation by assessing the transfer of a novel discriminative function across class members. Following simple successive discrimination reversal training and consistently strong probe performance indicative of the formation of two six‐member functional classes (X1–X6 and Y1–Y6), subjects were trained on a novel discrimination task to respond in the right‐side port in the presence of odor X1 and in the left‐side port in the presence of Y1. When rats demonstrated high accuracy on the left–right (LR) task as well as maintenance of the functional classes, LR probe sessions were conducted in which X2 or Y2 were presented on some trials as nonreinforced probes to test for transfer of the novel function (left or right responding). The LR probe sessions were conducted in this fashion for each pair of X and Y stimuli that had never been directly trained in the LR discrimination procedure. Transfer of the novel function was observed in five out of six subjects on the initial probe session, but only two rats showed consistent transfer across subsequent probes. The results offer preliminary evidence for transfer of novel function in rats and support further investigation using a similar approach.

Transitive inference and transitivity: Two sides of the same coin?

Ano: 2025

Abstract Two distinctive nonverbal procedures match verbal transitive syllogisms: (1) transitive inference (TI), often presented as an analogy to verbal transitive inference, and (2) transitivity (TR), commonly discussed in the context of emergent relations and stimulus equivalence. Although the tasks are often used interchangeably in human studies, it remains unclear whether they rely on similar behavioral strategies or engage the same brain areas in nonhuman animals. This review examines similarities and differences between the TI task and the TR task, concluding that existing research does not clearly indicate whether they share a common cognitive domain. Additionally, the review outlines future research directions (investigating task difficulty, exploring underlying neural circuitry, examining individual behavioral differences, and developing a unified computational model) that will be essential for clarifying this relationship.

Undiscounted costs and socially discounted benefits modulate cooperation in one‐shot and iterated prisoner's dilemma games

Ano: 2025

Abstract Cooperation involves an individual's choice that benefits both themself and others —in contrast to selfishness, which benefits the individual only—and has been suggested to be more likely when the benefit to others, discounted as a function of their social distance (i.e., social discounting), exceeds the undiscounted cost to the cooperator. To test this hypothesis, we exposed 126 participants to eight, one‐shot reward matrices of prisoner's dilemma games, among which socially discounted benefits and undiscounted costs systematically varied. Increasing benefits and increasing costs increased and decreased, respectively, the percentage of cooperators across the matrices. Then, 111 participants from the original sample completed one of five iterated, 40‐trial reward matrices programmed to play a tit‐for‐tat strategy, among which benefits and costs varied. Overall, increasing benefits and increasing costs increased and decreased, respectively, cooperation across trials. This tendency, however, was more clearly observed in later than earlier trials. Both in one‐shot and in iterated games, the effect of costs was greater than that of benefits and the effects of both benefits and costs decreased at extreme values. These findings suggest that cost–benefit balance, modulated by social discounting, determines degree of cooperation in both one‐shot and repeated‐trial cooperation tasks.

Urcuioli's differential‐outcomes research: Implications for our behavioral units

Ano: 2025

Abstract Our behavioral units include stimulus classes and response classes. Peter Urcuioli's differential‐outcomes research implies they should extend to the third term of the three‐term contingency. Classes of consequences come in several varieties (e.g., conditional reinforcers, tokens), but our vocabulary does not coherently organize them. They are differentiated not only by physical properties such as type, location, and duration but also by the schedule contingencies in which they participate. We consider units ranging from the physical and chemical sciences to those based on the particular history of life on earth. The latter include biology, sociology, linguistics, and our own behavior analysis. Scientific units are typically nested (e.g., atoms within molecules, cells within organs, organisms within species). Comparing our units with those from other taxonomies raises questions about their emergence and evolution and their shared properties across levels of nesting (e.g., species within genus, subclasses within higher order operants, phonemes within words). Emergence necessarily occurs when higher order units have functions that are not shared with their lower order constituents. These nested and multileveled behavior classes challenge single‐level views, such as metaphorical accounts of behavior as a totality contained within a pie, with slices corresponding to behavior classes matched to their outcomes.

Using high‐preference and low‐preference music in a synchronous reinforcement treadmill preparation: A further extension

Ano: 2025

Abstract We conducted a series of studies on the effects of synchronous reinforcement. Study 1 presented 30 participants with their high‐preference (HP) music, identified via a conjugate assessment, for walking on a treadmill during three synchronous reinforcement (SYNC) components. The results indicated that HP music produced schedule control of walking speed for 20 participants (66.7%). In addition, 80% of the participants who displayed schedule control also displayed variable walking speeds when music was withheld. Study 2 extended Study 1 by providing 30 new participants with their low‐preference (LP) music, again using the same conjugate assessment, for walking on a treadmill during the same three SYNC components. The results indicated that LP music produced schedule control of walking to (a) avoid music for 13 participants (43.33%) and (b) access music for two participants (6.67%). Study 3 compared group results across components for HP and LP participants from Studies 1 and 2, respectively. The results indicated that that the HP group walked significantly faster than the LP group during three components; however, heart rates did not differ statistically between the two groups for any component. The results across the studies indicate that both positive and negative synchronous reinforcement with music increased the walking speeds and heart rates of participants.

Using matrix training to promote recombinative generalization by children on the autism spectrum in China

Ano: 2025

Abstract We implemented tact matrix training to teach tacts of spatial locations to four children (male, 4–7 years of age) on the autism spectrum in China. The experimental design involved a multiple‐probe design across participants with pre‐ and postinstruction probes on untaught tacts and listener responses. Learning outcomes included taught tacts of object–preposition combinations, generalization of untaught tacts, and derived listener responses to all combinations in the matrix. All four participants acquired taught tacts after matrix training. Untaught tacts and listener responses were demonstrated with direct teaching, indicating the occurrence of recombinative generalization. Two participants maintained these skills with high accuracy for 4 or 8 weeks. The remaining two participants demonstrated high accuracy in untaught tacts and listener responses immediately after instruction; however, accuracy in taught and untaught tacts declined during the 4‐ or 8‐week maintenance probes, whereas listener responses remained stable.

Using must‐have and can‐have features to improve conceptual learning

Ano: 2025

Abstract Concepts can be taught by presenting examples and nonexamples and giving the learner feedback on whether they accurately identify the examples, but it is not clear how to select examples and nonexamples. Specifically, the degree to which examples and nonexamples should differ is unknown. Six experiments were conducted to compare conceptual learning for four stimulus sets (three sets of arbitrary stimuli and one set of biological stimuli) across up to three practice conditions: (a) nonexamples that were relatively similar to the examples, (b) nonexamples that were relatively dissimilar to the examples, and (c) examples only. Conceptual learning was measured before and after practice using tests with examples and nonexamples that were not used during practice. Including nonexamples in practice increased the likelihood of conceptual learning relative to including only examples. Using nonexamples that were more similar to the examples resulted in the most robust conceptual learning. Adding new but conceptually irrelevant features to the testing stimuli disrupted conceptual learning but less so when the practice included nonexamples that were more similar to the examples. The efficacy and efficiency of instruction for conceptual learning were affected by features of the stimuli used to practice and test conceptual learning.

Using prospective mixed methods to investigate the effect of the COVID‐19 pandemic on cannabis demand

Ano: 2025

Abstract Following the COVID‐19 pandemic, it is vital to understand how major global stressors influence substance use, including cannabis‐related outcomes. The Marijuana Purchase Task assesses hypothetical cannabis demand (i.e., relative reinforcing value) and can detect contextual alterations. This study paired prospective cannabis demand assessment with qualitative inquiry to explore how COVID‐19 impacted cannabis use behavior. Individuals previously enrolled in a laboratory cannabis administration study opted in to a remote follow‐up survey ( n = 41, 46% female). Participants were categorized as those who did or did not increase use based on self‐reported changes in cannabis flower use and provided contextual explanations regarding pandemic‐related influences on cannabis outcomes. General linear models with repeated measures examined mean differences in demand by occasion (i.e., before/during COVID‐19), group (i.e., those who did/did not increase use), and their interaction. Those who increased use exhibited significantly higher demand during the pandemic; those who did not increase use exhibited similar demand across time revealing a Group × Time interaction. Thematic analysis contextualized quantitative findings, explaining external influences that affect use and demand (e.g., changes in cost, access, environment). COVID‐19 differentially impacted cannabis use and demand, with prepandemic use affecting trajectories. Contextual influences (i.e., availability, free time, income) facilitate the escalation of use under conditions of extreme global stress.

Using self‐tailored deposit contracts and reinforcement thinning to increase physical activity of sedentary adults

Ano: 2025

Abstract Previous research supports behavioral interventions, such as contingency management, to increase physical activity. A common limitation of these interventions is a lack of maintenance effects or assessment of the target behavior following the withdrawal of the intervention. This study evaluated self‐tailored deposit contracts and reinforcement thinning to increase daily steps of sedentary adults using a nonconcurrent multiple‐baseline‐across‐participants design. Participants selected a step goal and a predetermined amount of money to deposit, which would be returned contingent on meeting their goal daily, every 3 days, and weekly. Results showed an increase in step count during the intervention for all three participants, extending previous findings that self‐tailored deposit contracts and reinforcement thinning can increase adults' physical activity. However, the combination of procedures did not result in increased daily steps when the intervention was withdrawn.