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Em uma tarefa de emparelhamento com o modelo envolvendo duas escolhas, o participante pode aprender tanto a selecionar o estímulo comparação correto (controle por seleção) quanto a rejeitar o incorreto (controle por rejeição). O presente trabalho apresenta uma revisão dos procedimentos que induzir o estabelecimento dos controles por seleção ou por rejeição durante o treino de discriminações condicionais. Dentre os procedimentos revisados estão o uso de diferentes proporções de S+/S-, os procedimentos de dica atrasada e de dica do S+, a realização do treino com máscara e o procedimento de emparelhamento com o modelo com observação requerida (MTS-OR). Alguns parâmetros que podem influenciar o estabelecimento dos controles por seleção e por rejeição, tais como o número de estímulos de comparação apresentados e a topografia de resposta, também são analisados e discutidos. A revisão de diferentes estudos sugere que procedimentos precisam ser combinados para que os controles por seleção ou por rejeição sejam estabelecidos. Além disso, estudos sugerem que a manipulação da observação dos estímulos é uma variável crítica na modelagem desses controles. Palavras-clave: controle por seleção, controle por rejeição, modelo/S+, modelo/S-, emparelhamento com o modelo, equivalência de estímulos.

Este estudo discute os efeitos dos comportamentos verbais vocais do terapeuta, em específico, orientação, interpretação e empatia, sobre os comportamentos do cliente de resistência e cooperação. Examina-se diferentes sistemas de categorização de comportamentos do terapeuta e cliente e como tais sistematizações permitem o estudo da interação terapêutica na terapia analítico-comportamental. São apresentadas diferentes pesquisas sobre as categorias orientação, empatia e interpretação, bem como as divergências e convergências de conclusões com relação aos efeitos positivos e negativos sobre os resultados da terapia. Constata-se que resultados discordantes sejam produzidos a partir de diferenças quanto aos procedimentos de coleta e análise dos dados utilizados. Por fim, discute-se que o impacto de categorias de comportamentos do terapeuta esteja condicionado à etapa do processo terapêutico e comportamentos precedentes do cliente e do terapeuta. Palavras-clave: Terapia Analítico-Comportamental, comportamento verbal, sistemas de categorização, avaliação de resultados de intervenções

A simulation study was conducted to provide a more thorough account of measurement error associated with interval sampling methods. A computer program simulated the application of momentary time sampling, partial‐interval recording, and whole‐interval recording methods on target events randomly distributed across an observation period. The simulation yielded measures of error for multiple combinations of observation period, interval duration, event duration, and cumulative event duration. The simulations were conducted up to 100 times to yield measures of error variability. Although the present simulation confirmed some previously reported characteristics of interval sampling methods, it also revealed many new findings that pertain to each method's inherent strengths and weaknesses. The analysis and resulting error tables can help guide the selection of the most appropriate sampling method for observation‐based behavioral assessments.

The generalized matching law (GML) is a descriptive mathematical model that conceptualizes an organism's response ratios as a function of associated reinforcer ratios (Baum 1974). The matching equation has been used in several experimental and natural studies and results frequently showed explained variances (r2) over 80% and sensitivity of 0.80 (Davison & McCarthy 2010). This high level of r2 might suggest that constraints within operant conditioning procedures may inflate GML parameters. For instance, in most operant procedures, such as a concurrent variable-interval schedule of reinforcement, the amount of reinforcers obtained is always lower or equal to the amount of responses, which can be seen as an emergent property of feedback functions. The purpose of the current study is to apply the GML to pseudorandomly sampled data in which this constraint has been computed. A Monte Carlo simulation shows that the generalized matching law explained on average 47 % of the variance, with sensitivity around a value of 0.60 and bias of log c = 0.00. Results found in the current study could be used as an alternative null hypothesis for future studies in natural settings. For instance, explained variances of 0.62, 0.80, and 0.97 could be qualify, respectively, as small, medium and large differences compared to 0.47. The current study is finally compared to McDowell's (2004) simulations. McDowell computed behavioral processes, such as the selection by consequences (Skinner, 1981), within the organism whereas the current study investigates environmental and observational constraints on the regressions estimates. Current results suggest further investigations of underlying environmental constraints when studying the GML. Futures studies are necessary to assess what to expect from the GML when such constraints occur in the operant conditioning procedure.

Social sensitivity is defined by the adjustment of an organism to the contingencies of social reinforcement (Forget & Rivard, 2010) and relies on the generalized matching law (Baum, 1974) and the operant function of social attention (Sajwaj & Dillon, 1977) such as verbal and non-verbal approvals, staring, and proximity (Forget & Otis, 1984). The current article assesses the actual state of knowledge on social sensitivity that has been carried over the last 30 years of research. Studies were identified through a search in PsycInfo regardless of the year of publication. The keywords were matching law, social sensitivity, social attention . The reference section of each article was further examined to identify additional studies on social sensitivity. Inclusion criteria were the use of single-subject designs with social reinforcers and single-subject statistical analyses relying on the generalized matching law. Other studies were rejected because of statistical issues arising from between-subject analyses (Caron, 2013). The current review identified 15 published articles and 4 theses. Results reveal that social sensitivity has been mostly studied on children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and within classroom. Most studies showed that the generalized matching law describes well participants' response allocation according to social reinforcers. Among the 83 identified participants, 57 % conformed to matching law predictions. Results suggest a continuum of social sensitivity. For instance, typical participants' response allocations were generally closer to matching law predictions whereas participants with Asperger syndrome appeared to be insensitive to social reinforcers. Response allocations of the latter population showed low explained variances and a single participant showed a high sensitivity parameter. Participants with Austism Spectrum Disorders ranged between these two groups and showed higher bias value. This result agrees with the idea that this population presents and prefers stereotypic behavior. However, the review shows that 78 % of the identified studies did not use experimental designs. Most studies relied on descriptive observations, that is unconstrained reinforcers ratios, that may lead to relevant issues (St. Peter al., 2005), incorrect outcomes (Thompson & Iwata, 2007) and does not allow definitive conclusions (Bijou, Peterson & Ault, 1968). Considering only experimental designs, a single study showed results in favor of the generalized matching law, another one shows mixed results and the last two cast doubt on the capacity of the generalized matching law to describe social interaction. These ambiguous conclusions clearly point out that more experimental studies are needed. Despite that the flight from natural fields to the laboratory may represent a challenge, it is the next necessary step forward a robust and relevant theory of social sensitivity

Because the location of landmines is initially unknown, it is impossible to arrange differential reinforcement for accurate detection of landmines by pouched rats working on actual minefields. Therefore, provision must be made for maintenance of accurate responses by an alternative reinforcement strategy. The present experiment evaluated a procedure in which a plastic bag containing 2,4,6‐trinitrotoluene (TNT), the active ingredient in most landmines, was placed in contact with the ground in a disturbed area, then removed, to establish opportunities for reinforcement. Each of five rats continued to accurately detect landmines when extinction was arranged for landmine‐detection responses and detections of TNT‐contaminated locations were reinforced under a fixed‐ratio 1 schedule. The results of this translational research study suggest that the TNT‐contamination procedure is a viable option for arranging reinforcement opportunities for rats engaged in actual landmine‐detection activities and the viability of this procedure is currently being evaluated on minefields in Angola and Mozambique.

Physical inactivity is a leading cause of mortality. Reinforcement interventions appear to be useful for increasing activity and preventing adverse consequences of sedentary lifestyles. This study evaluated a reinforcement‐thinning schedule for maintaining high activity levels. Sedentary adults ( N = 77) were given pedometers and encouraged to walk ≥10,000 steps per day. Initially, all participants earned rewards for each day they walked ≥10,000 steps. Subsequently, 61 participants were randomized to a monitoring‐only condition or a monitoring‐plus‐reinforcement‐thinning condition, in which frequencies of monitoring and reinforcing walking decreased over 12 weeks. The mean (± SD ) percentage of participants in the monitoring‐plus‐reinforcement‐thinning condition who met walking goals was 83% ± 24% and was 55% ± 31% for participants in the monitoring‐only condition, p < .001. Thus, monitoring plus reinforcement thinning maintained high rates of walking when it was in effect; however, groups did not differ at a 24‐week follow‐up. Monitoring plus reinforcement thinning, nevertheless, hold potential to extend benefits of reinforcement interventions at low costs.

Treatments designed to teach mands for information have included prompting and differential reinforcement, as well as procedures to manipulate the relevant establishing operation (EO). However, previous studies have not included relevant abolishing operation (AO) conditions to ensure that the mand is under relevant antecedent control. Data on listener responses (i.e., use of the information) are also absent in the literature. The current study shows differential responding under EO and AO conditions and reports listener responses that demonstrate use of the provided information. Three participants, diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder, learned to mand for information using “who?” and “which?” questions exclusively under EO conditions. In addition, each participant responded to the information provided to access a preferred item. Generalization of the “which?” mand for information was also demonstrated across novel stimuli.

Working with elementary students with disabilities, we used alternating treatment designs to evaluate and compare the effects of 2 computer‐based flash card sight‐word reading interventions, 1 with 1‐s response intervals and another with 5‐s response intervals. In Study 1, we held instructional time constant, applying both interventions for 3 min. Although students completed 6 learning trials per word during each 1‐s session and 2 trials per word during each 5‐s session, results showed similar acquisition rates for 1‐s and 5‐s words. During Study 2, we held learning trials constant (3 per word) and allowed instructional time to vary. When we measured learning using cumulative instructional sessions, the interventions appeared to cause similar increases in acquisition rates. When the same learning data were measured and plotted using cumulative instructional seconds, all participants showed greater learning rates under the 1‐s intervention. Discussion focuses on how measurement scales can influence comparative effectiveness studies.