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Response‐force changes early in extinction with and without a changing force criterion during training

Ano: 2026

Abstract This experiment was designed to examine the question of how different force‐exertion requirements in effect prior to extinction affect force exertion during extinction of the previously reinforced response, with an emphasis on such effects early in extinction. Human participants were exposed to one of three conditions in which making a force‐exertion response resulted in points displayed on a computer screen. In two conditions, the response‐force requirement was fixed during the reinforcement phase at a force exertion of either 50%–65% or 100%–125% of the force criterion exerted in a pretest. During the third condition, the force‐exertion criterion was decreased progressively from 100%–125% to 50%–65% of the force criterion during the reinforcement phase. After a short adjustment period, response‐force exertions generally conformed to the force requirements for reinforcement. Removing the opportunity for reinforcement reduced the number of responses relative to those occurring in the reinforcement phase, although some responding was still occurring for most participants at the end of the extinction phase. The results are discussed in relation to the variables responsible for the extinction of a force‐defined response, emphasizing changes in force early in extinction.

Sorting test as a measurement of expansion of equivalence classes

Ano: 2026

Abstract The primary purpose was to study how the expansion of equivalence classes is documented by sorting tests. In two experiments with 40 adult participants, there were three phases of training and testing of emergent relations. In the first phase, the participants were trained on 12 conditional discriminations arranged as a linear series training structure (A➔B➔C➔D➔E) followed by a sorting test. The second phase included simple discrimination training of C stimuli. The training comprised different numbers of key presses, and these numbers were used as F stimuli in the expansion test of the existing classes. The final phase contained sorting and matching‐to‐sample (MTS) tests. The two experiments differed in the number of key presses in the simple discrimination training and stimuli used as F stimuli in Phase 2 and the order of sorting and MTS tests in Phase 3. The main findings of the two experiments were that 100% of the participants sorted the stimuli correctly in the first phase, 83% (25 of 30) of the participants showed expansion and sorted the stimuli in the second phase, and finally, 90% (36 of 40) of the participants responded correctly on the MTS test in the third phase.

Teaching children with autism to challenge lies while playing board games

Ano: 2026

Abstract Children with autism may have difficulties identifying and responding to lies, which can leave them vulnerable to manipulation and exploitation. Ranick et al. (2013) described efficacious procedures for teaching children with autism to identify deceptive statements. We replicated Ranick et al. with procedural modifications that included incorporating naturalistic differential reinforcement baselines, evaluating for faulty stimulus control, and including naturalistic probes in training. The treatment package consisted of multiple‐exemplar training while the investigator and the participant played board games. Three boys between the ages of 6 and 9 years, diagnosed with autism, were presented with five trained deceptive statements and five probe deceptive statements. All three participants learned to challenge deceptive statements and distinguish them from nondeceptive statements, and all three maintained the skill after 1 month and generalized to novel deceivers.

Teaching self‐advocacy skills to direct care staff

Ano: 2026

Abstract This study evaluated the effects of a single training on the self‐advocacy skills of five direct care staff working in a human service organization. A nonconcurrent multiple‐baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the effects of a video‐based behavioral skills training package. Participants received training on how to self‐advocate in the context of two types of supervisor responses: (1) A supervisor responds positively to an employee's issue but does not provide a solution and (2) a supervisor responds negatively to an employee's issue but provides a solution. Results showed that the training increased self‐advocacy accuracy to mastery levels during one target condition for all five participants and during both target conditions for three participants. In addition, all participants' self‐advocacy skills generalized to two untrained types of supervisor responses. Participants reported moderate to high levels of satisfaction with the training procedures.

Test–retest reliability for a social discounting of personal information task

Ano: 2026

Abstract Increasing cybercrime rates means identifying potential victims is critically important. Social discounting tasks show that individuals share less personally identifying information as social distance increases. However, the test–retest reliability and uniqueness of this measure is unclear. The current study assessed social discounting for personally identifying information (SDPII), delay discounting, risk taking, and personality at two measurement waves 30 days apart for 64 undergraduate students. Test–retest reliability was statistically significant for the SDPII and all other measures, replicating previous studies. SDPII rates were not significantly correlated with other measures during both measurement waves, showing discriminant validity. SDPII rates were lower than those reported in a previous study but were still well described by a hyperbolic discounting function, suggesting replicability across studies. The high test–retest reliability, uniqueness, and replicability of the SDPII suggests that it may quantitatively identify cybercrime victimization. Future research should test which measure or combination of measures can accurately predict scam and cybercrime victimization to inform data‐based interventions.

The effects of discriminative stimuli on combined relapse: A preliminary human‐operant investigation

Ano: 2026

Abstract Decreases in alternative reinforcement and context changes are events that can lead to resurgence and renewal, respectively. Those stimulus conditions are often investigated in isolation within three‐phase arrangements. Recently, studies have examined whether combined decreases in alternative reinforcement and context changes in Phase 3 produce a relapse magnitude different from the summed effects of each change in isolation. In the present study, we examined whether discriminative stimuli paired with target response extinction in Phase 2 would mitigate resurgence when both stimulus changes occurred simultaneously in Phase 3. We used a within‐subjects design and exposed 11 typically developing adults to four 3‐phase arrangements in a randomized sequence: ABB− (resurgence in isolation), ABA+ (renewal in isolation), ABA− (resurgence and renewal), and ABA‐S ∆ . Results indicated that the combined decrease in alternative reinforcement and context change in Phase 3 had a superadditive effect in five participants and an additive effect in four participants and that the discriminative stimulus significantly attenuated these interaction effects for most participants. These results are further discussed in terms of stimulus control tactics for mitigating resurgence produced by contingency and context and changes and future research on the topic of combined relapse broadly.

The role of re‐presentation in the treatment of liquid expulsion

Ano: 2026

Abstract Children with feeding difficulties often engage in expulsion (i.e., spitting out) of liquid. Expulsion is problematic because it limits the volume of liquid that a child will consume. Researchers have used re‐presentation as an embedded component of escape extinction to treat expel. Although studies have demonstrated that re‐presentation can effectively reduce expel, it is unclear whether it should always be included with escape‐extinction‐based treatments. We describe a program evaluation project designed to examine the effects of re‐presentation on liquid expulsion for children with severe feeding difficulties. We conducted a prospective consecutive controlled case series to compare the effects of a function‐based treatment with and without re‐presentation and reported on the outcomes obtained for 17 children. Various patterns of responding emerged across participants. However, re‐presentation resulted in the greatest increases in mouth clean (i.e., swallowing) and lowest levels of expel for 10 participants. We discuss implications for research and practice.

Thorndike's law of effect and its inconsistent description over the years

Ano: 2026

Abstract The law of effect, originally proposed by E. L. Thorndike in a book that was published in 1911, had a major influence on the development of studies of instrumental or operant conditioning in the twentieth century. It remains a core concept in psychology and is invariably covered in undergraduate and graduate courses. Thorndike's law of effect also remains a topic of inquiry in contemporary efforts to understand the nature of habitual responses as contrasted with goal‐directed behavior. The mechanisms of the law of effect continue to be studied by behavioral and social psychologists as well as neuroscientists. However, many statements of the law of effect deviate in significant ways from Thorndike's original formulation. The present article reviews the history of Thorndike's law of effect and traces how the law has been, and continues to be, misrepresented. The hope is that familiarity with common misrepresentations of the law of effect will encourage greater consistency and clarity in discussions of the law and better appreciation of its role in contemporary research.

Turning the page: Increasing young children's preference for looking at and engaging with books

Ano: 2026

Abstract Although many studies have focused on teaching components of reading (blending, fluency), fewer studies have evaluated how children become interested in looking at and engaging with books. In this study, we evaluated the effects of a continuous reinforcement procedure on children's preference for engaging with books using a concurrent multiple‐probe‐across‐participants design. The procedure involved providing rich social interactions and reinforcers when children engaged with books. Across two experiments and six preschool participants with disabilities, we observed children who rarely engaged with books before the intervention shift their preference to book engagement following the intervention. These outcomes were observed both in the intervention and naturalistic play settings, including during maintenance probes. Additionally, in Experiment 2, children's performance task behavior increased when books were presented as a consequence during a performance task. The outcomes are discussed in terms of promoting preference for book stimuli in the context of typical and instructional contexts.

Unmasking social functions: Outcomes from a retrospective consecutive case series of 19 applications

Ano: 2026

Abstract Prior research has identified the potential dangers associated with challenging behavior, specifically self‐injurious behavior, and has thus highlighted the need to employ protective procedures to ensure the safety of individuals with self‐injurious behavior. Although protective procedures can sometimes suppress responding, some small‐ n studies suggest they can also elucidate or unmask social functions when the initial functional analysis indicates that challenging behavior is only automatically maintained. However, large‐scale studies of functional analysis outcomes indicate that co‐occurring automatically and socially maintained challenging behavior is relatively uncommon. We conducted a retrospective consecutive case series study to describe a set of procedures to unmask social functions when the initial functional analysis indicated an automatic function. Results suggest that protective procedures unmasked social functions in 26.32% of cases.